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Hundred Years' War From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search
The Hundred Years' War (French: Guerre de Cent Ans)was a series of separate wars lasting from 1337 to 1453 between tworoyal houses for the French throne, which was vacant with theextinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings. The two primary contenders were the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou.The House of Valois claimed the title of King of France, while thePlantagenets from England claimed to be Kings of France and England.Plantagenet Kings were the 12th century rulers of the Kingdom ofEngland, and had their roots in the French regions of Anjou and Normandy. French soldiers fought on both sides, with Burgundy and Aquitaine providing notable support for the Plantagenet side.
The conflict lasted 116 years but was punctuated by several periods of peace, before it finally ended in the expulsion of the Plantagenets from France (except the Pale of Calais).The war was a victory for the house of Valois, who succeeded inrecovering the Plantagenet gains made initially and expelling them fromthe majority of France by the 1450s.
The war was in fact a series of conflicts and is commonly divided into three or four phases: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), the Lancastrian War (1415–1429), and the slow decline of English fortunes after the appearance of Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Several other contemporary European conflicts were directly related to this conflict: the Breton War of Succession, the Castilian Civil War, the War of the Two Peters, and the 1383-1385 Crisis. The term "Hundred Years' War" was a later term invented by historians to describe the series of events.
The war owes its historical significance to a number of factors.Though primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas ofboth French and English nationalism. Militarily, it saw the introduction of new weapons and tactics, which eroded the older system of feudal armies dominated by heavy cavalry. The first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empirewere introduced for the war, thus changing the role of the peasantry.For all this, as well as for its long duration, it is often viewed asone of the most significant conflicts in the history of medieval warfare. In France, the English invasion, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines and marauding mercenary armies (turned to banditry) reduced the population by two-thirds.[1]Shorn of its Continental possessions, England was left an islandnation, a fact which profoundly affected its outlook and developmentfor more than 500 years.[2]
[edit] BackgroundThe background to the conflict is to be found in 1066, when William, Duke of Normandy, led an invasion of England. He defeated the English King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings,and had himself crowned King of England. As Duke of Normandy, heremained a vassal of the French King, and was required to swear fealtyto the latter for his lands in France; for a King to swear fealty toanother King was considered humiliating, and the Norman Kingsof England generally attempted to avoid the service. On the Frenchside, the Capetian monarchs resented a neighbouring king holding landswithin their own realm, and sought to neutralise the threat England nowposed to France.
Following a period of civil wars and unrest in England known as The Anarchy (1135–1154), the Anglo-Norman dynasty was succeeded by the Angevin Kings. At the height of power the Angevins controlled Normandy and England, along with Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Gascony, Saintonge, and Aquitaine.The King of England directly ruled more territory on the continent thanthe King of France himself. This situation – where the Angevin kingsowed vassalage to a ruler who was de facto much weaker – was a cause of continual conflict. This assemblage of lands is sometimes known as the Angevin Empire.
John of England inherited this great estate from King Richard I. However, Philip II of Franceacted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both legallyand militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in wresting control of mostof the ancient territorial possessions. The subsequent Battle of Bouvines (1214), along with the Saintonge War (1242) and finally the War of Saint-Sardos(1324), reduced Angevin hold on the continent to a few small provincesin Gascony, and the complete loss of the crown jewel of Normandy.
By the early 14th century, many in the English aristocracy couldstill remember a time when their grandparents and great-grandparentshad control over wealthy continental regions, such as Normandy, whichthey also considered their ancestral homeland, and were motivated toregain possession of these territories.
[edit] Dynastic turmoil: 1314–1328The specific events leading up to the war took place in France, where the unbroken line of the Direct Capetianfirstborn sons had succeeded each other for centuries. It was thelongest continuous dynasty in medieval Europe. In 1314, the DirectCapetian, King Philip IV, died, leaving three male heirs: Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A fourth child of Phillip IV, Isabella, was married to Edward II of England,and in 1312 had produced a son, Edward of Windsor, who was a potentialheir to the thrones of both England (through his father) and France(through his grandfather).
Philip IV's eldest son and heir, Louis X, died in 1316, leaving only his posthumous son John I, who was born and died that same year, and a daughter Joan, whose paternity was suspect.
Upon the deaths of Louis X and John I, Philip IV's second-eldestson, Philip V, sought the throne for himself, using rumours that hisniece Joan was a result of her mother's adultery (and thus barred fromthe succession). A by-product of this was the invocation in the 1380sof Salic law to assert that women could not inherit the French throne.[3]When Philip V himself died in 1322, his daughters, too, were put asidein favour of an uncle: Charles IV, the third son of Philip IV.
In 1324, Charles IV of France and his brother-in-law, Edward II of England fought the short War of Saint-Sardos in Gascony. The major event of the war was the brief siege of the English fortress of La Réole, on the Garonne. The English forces, led by Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of Kent,were forced to surrender after a month of bombardment from the Frenchcannons, after promised reinforcements never arrived. The war was acomplete failure for England, and only Bordeaux and a narrow coastal strip of the once great Duchy of Aquitaine remained in English hands.
The recovery of these lost lands became a major focus of Englishdiplomacy. The war also galvanised opposition to Edward II among theEnglish nobility and led to his being deposed from the throne in 1327, in favour of his young son, Edward of Windsor, who thus became Edward III. Charles IV died in 1328, leaving only a daughter, and an unborn infant who would prove to be a girl. The senior line of the Capetian dynasty thus ended, creating a crisis over the French succession.
Meanwhile in England, the young Edward of Windsor had become KingEdward III of England in 1327. Being also the nephew of Charles IV ofFrance, Edward was Charles' closest living male relative, and the onlysurviving male descendent of Philip IV. By the English interpretationof feudal law, this made Edward III the legitimate heir to the throne of France.
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Family tree relating the French and English royal houses at the beginning of the war
The French nobility, however, balked at the prospect of a foreignking, particularly one who was also king of England. They asserted,based on their interpretation of the ancient Salic Law,that the royal inheritance could not pass to a woman or through her toher offspring. Therefore, the most senior male of the Capetian dynastyafter Charles IV, Philip of Valois,grandson of Philip III of France, was the legitimate heir in the eyesof the French. He had taken regency after Charles IV's death and wasallowed to take the throne after Charles' widow gave birth to adaughter. Philip of Valois was crowned as Philip VI, the first of the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty.
Joan II of Navarre, the daughter of Louis X, also had a good legal claim to the French throne, but lacked the power to back it up. The Kingdom of Navarre had no precedent against female rulers (the House of Capet having inherited it through Joan's grandmother, Joan I of Navarre), and so by treaty she and her husband, Philip of Evreux,were permitted to inherit that Kingdom; however, the same treaty forcedJoan and her husband to accept the accession of Philip VI in France,and to surrender her hereditary French domains of Champagne and Brie tothe French crown in exchange for inferior estates. Joan and Philip ofEvreux then produced a son, Charles II of Navarre. Born in 1332, Charles replaced Edward III as Philip IV's male heir in primogeniture, and in proximity to Louis X; although Edward remained the male heir in proximity to Saint Louis, Philip IV, and Charles IV.
[edit] On the eve of war: 1328–1337After Philip's accession, the English still controlled Gascony. Gascony produced vital shipments of salt and wine, and was very profitable. It was a separate fief, held of the French crown, rather than a territory of England. The Homagedone for its possession was a bone of contention between the two kings.Philip VI demanded Edward's recognition as sovereign; Edward wanted thereturn of further lands lost by his father. A compromise "homage" in1329 pleased neither side; but in 1331, facing serious problems athome, Edward accepted Philip as King of France and gave up his claimsto the French throne. In effect, England kept Gascony, in return forEdward giving up his claims to be the rightful king of France.
In 1333, Edward III went to war against David II of Scotland, a French ally under the Auld Alliance, and began the Second War of Scottish Independence.Philip saw the opportunity to reclaim Gascony while England's attentionwas concentrated northwards. However, the war was, initially at least,a quick success for England, and David was forced to flee to Franceafter being defeated by King Edward and Edward Balliol at the Battle of Halidon Hill in July. In 1336, Philip made plans for an expedition to restore David to the Scottish throne, and to also seize Gascony.
[edit] Beginning of the war: 1337–1360Main article: Hundred Years' War (1337–1360)
See also: War of the Breton Succession
Open hostilities broke out as French ships began scouting coastal settlements on the English Channel and in 1337 Philip reclaimed the Gascon fief, citing feudal law and saying that Edward had broken his oath (a felony)by not attending to the needs and demands of his lord. Edward IIIresponded by saying he was in fact the rightful heir to the Frenchthrone, and on All Saints' Day, Henry Burghersh, Bishop of Lincoln, arrived in Paris with the defiance of the king of England. War had been declared.
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Battle of Sluys from a manuscript of Froissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470
In the early years of the war, Edward III allied with the nobles of the Low Countries and the burghers of Flanders,but after two campaigns where nothing was achieved, the alliance fellapart in 1340. The payments of subsidies to the German princes and thecosts of maintaining an army abroad dragged the English government intobankruptcy, heavily damaging Edward’s prestige. At sea, France enjoyedsupremacy for some time, through the use of Genoese ships and crews.Several towns on the English coast were sacked, some repeatedly. Thiscaused fear and disruption along the English coast. There was aconstant fear during this part of the war that the French would invade.France's sea power led to economic disruptions in England as it cutdown on the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony.However, in 1340, while attempting to hinder the English army fromlanding, the French fleet was almost completely destroyed in the Battle of Sluys. After this, England was able to dominate the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.
In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around a back and forth struggle in Brittany, with the city of Vannes changing hands several times, as well as further campaigns in Gascony with mixed success for both sides.
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the Channel, landing in the Cotentin. The English army captured Caenin just one day, surprising the French who had expected the city tohold out much longer. Philip gathered a large army to oppose him, andEdward chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging ashe went, rather than attempting to take and hold territory. Findinghimself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces forbattle, and Philip's army attacked. The famous Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen. Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel,capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for theEnglish. It allowed them to keep troops in France safely. In the sameyear, an English victory against Scotland in the Battle of Neville's Cross led to the capture of David II and greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.
In 1348, the Black Deathbegan to ravage Europe. In 1356, after it had passed and England wasable to recover financially, Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers, where the English archers repeated the tactics used at Crécy. The new French king, John II, was captured (See: Ransom of King John II of France.) John signed a truce with Edward, and in his absence, much of the government began to collapse. Later that year, the Second Treaty of London was signed, by which England gained possession of Aquitaine and John was freed.
The French countryside at this point began to fall into complete chaos. Brigandage,the actions of the professional soldiery when fighting was at low ebb,was rampant. In 1358, the peasants rose in rebellion in what was calledthe Jacquerie.Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping tocapitalise on the discontent and seize the throne, but although noFrench army stood against him in the field, he was unable to take Paris or Rheims from the Dauphin, later King Charles V. He negotiated the Treaty of Brétignywhich was signed in 1360. The English came out of this phase of the warwith half of Brittany, Aquitaine (about a quarter of France), Calais,Ponthieu, and about half of France's vassal states as their allies,representing the clear advantage of a united England against agenerally disunified France.
[edit] First peace: 1360–1369Main article: Treaty of Brétigny
See also: Castilian Civil War
When John's son Louis I, Duc d'Anjou,sent to the English as a hostage on John's behalf, escaped in 1362,John II chivalrously gave himself up and returned to captivity inEngland. He died in honourable captivity in 1364 and Charles V succeeded him as king of France.
The Treaty of Brétigny had made Edward renounce his claim to theFrench crown. At the same time it greatly expanded his territory inAquitaine and confirmed his conquest of Calais. In reality, Edwardnever renounced his claim to the French crown, and Charles made a pointof retaking Edward's new territory as soon as he ascended to thethrone. In 1369, on the pretext that Edward III had failed to observethe terms of the treaty of Brétigny, Charles declared war once again.
[edit] French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389Main article: Hundred Years' War (1369–1389)
The reign of Charles V saw the English steadily pushed back. Although the Breton war ended in favour of the English at the Battle of Auray, the dukes of Brittany eventually reconciled with the French throne. The Breton soldier Bertrand du Guesclin became one of the most successful French generals of the Hundred Years' War.
[url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File u_Guesclin_Dinan.jpg]![]() [/url][url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fileu_Guesclin_Dinan.jpg]![]() [/url]
Statue of Du Guesclin in Dinan
Simultaneously, the Black Prince was occupied with war in the Iberian peninsulafrom 1366 and due to illness was relieved of command in 1371, whilstEdward III was too elderly to fight; providing France with even moreadvantages. Pedro of Castile, whose daughters Constance and Isabella were married to the Black Prince's brothers John of Gaunt and Edmund of Langley, was deposed by Henry of Trastámarain 1370 with the support of Du Guesclin and the French. War eruptedbetween Castile and France on one side and Portugal and England on theother.
With the death of John Chandos, seneschal of Poitou, in the field and the capture of the Captal de Buch, the English were deprived of some of their best generals in France. Du Guesclin, in a series of careful Fabian campaigns, avoiding major English field armies, captured many towns, including Poitiers in 1372 and Bergerac in 1377. The English response to Du Guesclin was to launch a series of destructive chevauchées. But Du Guesclin refused to be drawn in by them.
With the death of the Black Prince in 1376 and Edward III in 1377, the prince's underaged son Richard of Bordeauxsucceeded to the English throne. Then, with Du Guesclin's death in1380, and the continued threat to England's northern borders fromScotland represented by the Battle of Otterburn, the war inevitably wound down to a truce in 1389. The peace was extended many times before open war flared up again.
[edit] Second peace: 1389–1415See also: Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians
Although Henry IV of Englandplanned campaigns in France, he was unable to put them into effect dueto his short reign. In the meantime, though, the French King Charles VI was descending into madness, and an open conflict for power began between his cousin, John the Fearless, and his brother, Louis of Orléans. After Louis's assassination, the Armagnacfamily took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sideswere bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.
England too was plagued with internal strife during this period, as uprisings in Ireland and Waleswere accompanied by renewed border war with Scotland and two separatecivil wars. The Irish troubles embroiled much of the reign of Richard II,who had not resolved them by the time he lost his throne and life tohis cousin Henry, who took power for himself in 1399. This was followedby the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵrin Wales which was not finally put down until 1415 and actuallyresulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years. In Scotland,the change in regime in England prompted a fresh series of border raidswhich were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of aScottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill. A dispute over the spoils of this action between Henry and the Earl of Northumberlandresulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control ofnorthern England, which was only resolved with the almost completedestruction of the Percy family by 1408. Throughout this period,England was also faced with repeated raids by French and Scandinavian pirates,which heavily damaged trade and the navy. These problems accordinglydelayed any resurgence of the dispute with France until 1415.
[edit] Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429Main article: Hundred Years' War (1415–1429)
The final phase of warmaking that engulfed France between 1415 and1435 is the most famous phase of the Hundred Years' War. Plans had beenlaid for the declaration of war since the rise to the throne of HenryIV, in 1399. However, it was his son, Henry V,who was finally given the opportunity. In 1414, Henry turned down anArmagnac offer to restore the Brétigny frontiers in return for hissupport. Instead, he demanded a return to the territorial status duringthe reign of Henry II. In August 1415, he landed with an army at Harfleurand took it. Although tempted to march on Paris directly, he elected tomake a raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais.In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmanoeuvred and low on supplies, and had to make a stand against a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme.In spite of his disadvantages, his victory was near-total; the Frenchdefeat was catastrophic, with the loss of many of the Armagnac leaders.
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Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt
Henry took much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417 and Rouen on January 19, 1419, making Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. He made formal alliance with the Duchy of Burgundy, who had taken Paris, after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with the mad king Charles VI, who signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry would marry Charles' daughter Catherine and Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General.
Henry's progress was now stopped by the arrival in France of aScottish army of around 6,000 men. In 1421, the Earl of Buchan crusheda larger English army at the Battle of Bauge,killing the English commander, Thomas, 1st Duke of Clarence, andkilling or capturing most of the English leaders. The French were sograteful that Buchan was immediately promoted to the High Constable ofFrance. Soon after this setback Henry V died at Meaux in 1422. Soon, Charles too had died. Henry's infant son, Henry VI,was immediately crowned king of England and France, but the Armagnacsremained loyal to Charles' son and the war continued in central France.
The English continued to attack France and in 1429 were besiegingthe important French city of Orleans. An attack on an English supplyconvoy led to the skirmish that is now known as Battle of the Herrings when John Fastolfcircled his supply wagons (largely filled with herring) around hisarchers and repelled a few hundred attackers. Later that year, a Frenchsaviour appeared in the form of a peasant girl from Domremy named Joan of Arc.
[edit] French victory: 1429–1453![]() ![]()
Hundred Years' War evolution. French territory: yellow; English: grey; Burgundian: dark grey.
By 1424, the uncles of Henry VI had begun to quarrel over the infant's regency, and one, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, married Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut, and invaded Holland to regain her former dominions, bringing him into direct conflict with Philip III, Duke of Burgundy.
By 1428, the English were ready to pursue the war again, laying siege to Orléans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city, but larger French forces remained passive. In 1429, Joan of Arc convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the local troops and they attacked the English Redoubts,forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the Frenchtook several English strong points on the Loire. Shortly afterwards, aFrench army, some 8000 strong, broke through English archers at Pataywith 1500 heavy cavalry, defeating a 3000 strong army commanded by John Fastolf and John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII.
After Joan was captured by the Burgundians in 1430 and later sold tothe English and executed, the French advance stalled in negotiations.But, in 1435, the Burgundians under Philip III switched sides, signingthe Treaty of Arrasand returning Paris to the King of France. Burgundy's allegianceremained fickle, but their focus on expanding their domains into theLow Countries left them little energy to intervene in France. The longtruces that marked the war also gave Charles time to reorganise hisarmy and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modernprofessional army that could put its superior numbers to good use, andcentralising the French state.
A repetition of Du Guesclin's battle avoidance strategy paid dividends and the French were able to recover town after town.
By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen, and in 1450 the count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formignyand defeated it, the English army having been attacked from the flankand rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beatingClermont's army. The French proceeded to capture Caen on July 6 and Bordeaux and Bayonne in 1451. The attempt by Talbot to retake Gascony, though initially welcomed by the locals, was crushed by Jean Bureau and his cannon at the Battle of Castillonin 1453 where Talbot had led a small Anglo-Gascon force in a frontalattack on an entrenched camp. This is considered the last battle of theHundred Years' War.
[edit] SignificanceThe Hundred Years' War was a time of military evolution. Weapons,tactics, army structure, and the societal meaning of war all changed,partly in response to the demands of the war, partly throughadvancement in technology, and partly through lessons that warfare taught.
England was what might be considered a more modern state thanFrance. It had a centralised authority—Parliament—with the authority totax. As the military writer Colonel Alfred Burnenotes, England had revolutionised its recruitment system, substitutinga paid army for one drawn from feudal obligation. Professional captainswere appointed who recruited troops for a specified (theoreticallyshort) period. To some extent, this was a necessity; many baronsrefused to go on a foreign campaign, as feudal service was supposed tobe for protection of the realm.[citation needed]
Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry was considered the mostpowerful unit in an army. But by the war's end, this belief hadshifted. The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of thelongbow (and, later, another long-distance weapon: firearms) and fixeddefensive positions of men-at-arms—tactics which helped lead to Englishvictories at Crécy and Agincourt. Learning from the Scots, the Englishbegan using lightly armoured mounted troops—later called dragoons—whowould dismount in order to fight battles. By the end of the HundredYears' War, this meant a fading of the expensively-outfitted,highly-trained heavy cavalry, and the eventual end of the knight as a military force and the nobility as a political one.[citation needed]
Although they had a tactical advantage, "nevertheless the size ofFrance prohibited lengthy, let alone permanent, occupation," as themilitary writer General Fuller noted.[citation needed]Covering a much larger area than England, and containing four times itspopulation, France proved difficult for the English to occupy.[citation needed]
An insoluble problem for English commanders was that, in an age ofsiege warfare, the more territory that was occupied, the greater therequirements for garrisons. This lessened the striking power of Englisharmies as time went on. Salisbury's army at Orleans consisted of only5,000 men, insufficient not only to invest the city but alsonumerically inferior to French forces within and without the city. TheFrench only needed to recover some part of their shattered confidencefor the outcome to become inevitable. At Orleans they were assisted bythe death of Salisbury through a fluke cannon shot and by theinspiration of Joan of Arc.[citation needed]
Furthermore, the ending of the Burgundian alliance spelled the endof English efforts in France, despite the campaigns of the aggressiveJohn, Lord Talbot, and his forces to delay the inevitable.[citation needed]
The war also stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastatedFrance as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism. The HundredYears' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudalmonarchy to a centralised state. The conflict became one of not justEnglish and French kings but one between the English and Frenchpeoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meantto invade and destroy the English language. National feeling emergedout of such rumours that unified both France and England further. TheHundred Years War basically confirmed the fall of the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest until 1362.[4]
The latter stages of the war saw the emergence of the dukes ofBurgundy as important players on the political field, and it encouragedthe English, in response to the seesawing alliance of the southern Netherlands (now Belgium,a rich centre of woollen production at the time) throughout theconflict, to develop their own woollen industry and foreign markets.[citation needed]
[edit] Weapons![]() ![]()
Self-yew English longbow, 2 m (6 ft 6 in) long, 470 N (105 lbf) draw force.
The most famous weapon was the English longbow of the yeomanarcher: while not a new weapon at the time, it played a significantrole throughout the war, giving the English tactical advantage in themany battles and skirmishes in which they were used. The French mainlyrelied on crossbows, often employed by Genoese mercenaries. The crossbowwas used because it took little training or skill to operate, and ithad a tremendous firing power against both plate and chain mail.However, it was slow to reload, heavy, and vulnerable to rain-damage;and it lacked the accuracy of the longbow. The longbow was a verydifficult weapon to employ, and English archers had to have practicedfrom an early age to become proficient. It also required tremendousstrength to use, with a draw weight typically around 620–670 newtons (140–150 lbf)and possibly as high as 800 N (180 lbf). It was its widespread use inthe British Isles that gave the English the ability to use it as aweapon. It was the strategic developments that brought it toprominence. The English, in their battles with the Welsh and Scots, hadlearned through defeat what dismounted bowmen in fixed positions coulddo to heavy cavalry from a distance. Since the arrows shot from alongbow could kill or incapacitate armoured knights (and particularlytheir costly horses), a charge could be dissipated before it everreached an army's lines. The longbow enabled an often-outnumberedEnglish army to pick battle locations, fortify them, and destroyopposing armies. As the Hundred Years' War came to a close, the numberof capable longbowmen began to drop off. Given the training required touse such powerful bows, the casualties taken by the longbowmen at Verneuil (1424) and Patay(1429) were significant. As a result, the longbow became less viable asa weapon since there were not enough men to wield them. In addition,improvements in armour-plating from the 15th century meant thatexpensive armour was almost arrow-proof. Only the most powerfullongbows at close-range could stand a chance of penetrating.[citation needed]
A number of new weapons were introduced during the Hundred Years' War as well. Gunpowder for gonnes (an early firearm) and cannons played significant roles as early as 1375. The last battle of the war, the Battle of Castillon, was the first battle in European history in which artillery was the deciding factor.
[edit] War and societyThe consequences of these new weapons meant that the nobility was nolonger the deciding factor in battle; peasants armed with longbows orfirearms could gain access to the power, rewards, and prestige oncereserved only for knights who bore arms. The composition of armieschanged, from feudal lords who might or might not show up when calledby their lord, to paid mercenaries. By the end of the war, both Franceand England were able to raise enough money through taxation to createstanding armies, the first time since the fall of the Western Roman Empire that there were standing armies in Western or Central Europe (excluding the Eastern Roman Empire).Standing armies represented an entirely new form of power for kings.Not only could they defend their kingdoms from invaders, but standingarmies could also protect the king from internal threats and also keepthe population in check. It was a major step in the early developmentstowards centralised nation-states that eroded the medieval order.[citation needed]
At the first major battle of the war, the Battle of Crécy, it is said[by whom?] that the age of chivalrycame to an end in that heavy-cavalry charges no longer decided battles.At the same time, there was a revival of the mores of chivalry, and itwas deemed to be of the highest importance to fight, and to die, in themost chivalrous way possible. The notion of chivalry was stronglyinfluenced by the Romantic epics of the 12th century, and knightsimagined themselves re-enacting those stories on the field of battle.Someone like Bertrand Du Guesclin was said[by whom?]to have gone into battle with one eye closed, declaring "I will notopen my eye for the honour of my lady until I have killed threeEnglishmen." Knights often carried the colours of their ladies intobattle.[citation needed]
In France, during the captivity of King John II, the Estates Generalattempted to arrogate power from the king. The Estates General was abody of representatives from the three groups who traditionally hadconsultative rights in France: the clergy, the nobles, and the townspeople. First called together under Philip IV“the Fair”, the Estates had the right to confirm or disagree with the“levée”, the principal tax by which the kings of France raised money.Under the leadership of a merchant named Etienne Marcel, the Estates General attempted to force the monarchy to accept a sort of agreement called the Great Ordinance. Like the English Magna Carta, the Great Ordinanceheld that the Estates should supervise the collection and spending ofthe levy, meet at regular intervals independent of the king’s call,exercise certain judicial powers, and generally play a greater role ingovernment. The nobles took this power to excess, however, causing in1358 a peasant rebellion known as the Jacquerie.Swarms of peasants furious over the nobles’ high taxes andforced-labour policies killed and burned in the north of France. One oftheir victims proved to be Etienne Marcel, and without his leadershipthe Estates General divided.[citation needed]
[edit] England and the Hundred Years' WarThe effects of the Hundred Years’ War in England also raised somequestions about the extent of royal authority. Like the French, theEnglish experienced a serious rebellion against the king during a gapin the succession caused by the death of Edward III when his grandson had not yet reached maturity. Called the Peasants' Revolt and also Wat Tyler’sRebellion, the 1381 uprising saw some 100,000 peasants march on Londonto protest the payment of high war taxes and efforts by the nobility toreduce English peasants to serfdom. The mob murderedand burned the houses of government officials and tax collectors. Theyoung king-to-be, Richard II, met the peasants outside his castle,defusing their violence by promising to meet their demands. At the sametime, agents of the throne murdered Wat Tyler, a key leader of therevolt, and Richard II sent the peasants back to their homes in thecountryside. After they left, however, he reneged on his promises andkept taxes high.
Initially the success of the campaigns brought much wealth toEnglish monarchy and the nobles. As the war continued, the upkeep andmaintenance of the region proved too burdensome and the English crownwas essentially bankrupted, despite the wealth of France continuouslybeing brought back by the nobles. The English monarchy began to seektruce, abandoning many of their subjects in France. Many Englishsubjects with claims and holdings were greatly disillusioned with thecrowns. The conflict became one of the major contributing factors tothe Wars of the Roses.
At the end of the war, England was left an island nation, except forCalais. Already on the fringe of Europe, it appeared destined forobscurity. However, the European discovery of the New Worldbeyond the western boundary of the Atlantic Ocean in 1492 meant thatseafaring nations like England were well-suited to take advantage ofthe new opportunities for trade, commerce and conquest it soon afforded.
[edit] Major battles- 1337, November—Battle of Cadsand:initiates hostilities. The Flemish defenders of the island were throwninto disorder by the first use of the English longbow on Continentalsoil.
- 1340, June 24—Battle of Sluys: Edward III destroys the Franco-Genoese fleet of Philip VI of France off the coast of Flanders ensuring England will not be invaded and that the majority of the war will be fought in France.
- 1345, October 21—Battle of Auberoche: a longbow victory by Henry, Earl of Derby against a French army at Auberoche in Gascony.
- 1346, August 26—Battle of Crécy: English longbowmen soundly defeat French cavalry near the river Somme in Picardy.
- 1346, September 4–1347, August 3—Siege of Calais: Calais falls under English control.
- 1350, August 29—Les Espagnols sur Mer: English fleet defeats Castilian fleet in a close fight.
- 1351, March 26—Combat of the Thirty: Thirty French Knights from Chateau Josselin under Beaumanoir call out and defeat thirty English Knights under Pembroke and Robert Bramborough.
- French army under De Nesle defeated by English under Bentley at Mauron in Brittany, De Nesle killed.
- 1356, September 19—Battle of Poitiers: Edward the Black Prince captures King John II of France, France plunged into chaos.
- 1364, September 29—Battle of Auray: End of Breton War of Succession, Du Gueschlin captured.
- 1367, April 3—Battle of Nájera (Navarette): Black Prince defeats a Castilian/French army at Nájera in Castile.
- 1372, June 22—Battle of La Rochelle: Castilian-French fleet defeats the English fleet, leading to loss of dominance at sea and French piracy and coastal raids.
- 1380—Castilian fleet commanded by Fernando Sánchez de Tovar sacks and burns English port towns.
- 1385--Battle of Aljubarrota: Nuno Álvares Pereira, commanding a small Anglo-Portuguese army, defeats the Castillan-French forces in Portugal.
- 1385—Jean de Vienne, having successfully strengthened the French naval situation, lands an army in Scotland, but is forced to retreat.
- 1415, October 25—Battle of Agincourt: English longbowmen under Henry V defeat French under Charles d'Albret.
- 1416—English defeat numerically greater French army at Valmont near Harfleur.
- 1417—Naval victory in the River Seine under Bedford.
- 1418, July 31–1419, January 19—Siege of Rouen: Henry V of England gains a foothold in Normandy.
- 1419—Battle of La Rochelle: Castilian fleet defeats Anglo-Hanseatic fleet.
- 1421, March 22—Battle of Bauge:The French and Scottish forces of Charles VII commanded by the Earl ofBuchan defeat an outmanoeuvred English force commanded by the Duke ofClarence.
- 1423, July 31—Battle of Cravant: The French and Scottish army is defeated at Cravant on the banks of the river Yonne.
- 1424, August 17—Battle of Vernuil: The Scots forces are decisively defeated.
- 1426, March 6—French besieging army under Arthur de Richemont dispersed by a small force under Sir Thomas Rempstone in "The Rout of St James" in Brittany.
- 1428, October 12–1429, May 8—Siege of Orléans:English forces commanded by the Earl of Salisbury, the Earl of Suffolk,and Talbot (Earl of Shrewsbury) lay siege to Orleans, and are forced towithdraw after a relief army accompanied by Joan of Arc arrives at thecity.
- 1429, February 12—Battle of the Herrings: English force under Sir John Fastolf defeats French and Scottish armies.
- 1429, July 17—Battle of Patay: In a reverse of Agincourt/Crécy, a French army under La Hire, Richemont, Joan of Arc,and other commanders break through English archers under Lord Talbotand then pursue and mop up the other sections of the English army,killing or capturing about half (2,200) of their troops. The Earl ofShrewsbury (Talbot) and Hungerford are captured.
- 1435—Battle of Gerbevoy: La Hire defeats an English force under Arundel.
- 1435 : French forces take Paris.
- 1450, April 15—Battle of Formigny: A French force under the Comte de Clermont defeats an English force under Thomas Kyriell.
- 1451: French forces conquer Gascony.
- 1453, July 17—Battle of Castillon: Jean Bureaudefeats Talbot to end the Hundred Years' War. This was also the firstbattle in European history where the use of cannon was a major factorin determining the victor.
[edit] Important figuresEnglandKing Edward III1327–1377Edward II's sonKing Richard II1377–1399Edward III's grandsonKing Henry IV1399–1413Edward III's grandsonKing Henry V1413–1422Henry IV's sonKing Henry VI1422–1461Henry V's sonEdward, the Black Prince1330–1376Edward III's sonJohn of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster1340–1399Edward III's sonJohn of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford1389–1435Henry IV's sonHenry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster1306–1361KnightJohn Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury1384–1453KnightRichard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York1411–1460KnightSir John Fastolf1378?–1459KnightFranceKing Philip VI1328–1350
King John II1350–1364Philip VI's sonKing Charles V1364–1380John II's sonLouis I of Anjou1380–1382John II's sonKing Charles VI1380–1422Charles V's sonKing Charles VII1422–1461Charles VI's sonJoan of Arc1412–1431SaintJean de Dunois1403–1468KnightGilles de Rais1404–1440KnightBertrand du Guesclin1320–1380KnightJean Bureau13??–1463KnightLa Hire1390–1443KnightBurgundyPhilip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy1363–1404Son of John II of FranceJohn the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy1404–1419Son of Philip the BoldPhilip the Good, Duke of Burgundy1419–1467Son of John the Fearless[edit] The French "Reconquista"In 1557 France conquered Calais and its surroundings, which had been under English rule for two centuries. In the aftermath, the region around Calais, then-known as the Calaisis or Calaysis, was renamed the Pays Reconquis ("Reconquered Country") in commemoration of its recovery by the French.
Since the French were well aware[citation needed] of the importance of the Reconquistain the history of their neighbours to the south, and since the Frenchreconquest of Calais occurred in the context of a war with Spain (Philip II of Spain was at the time the consort of Mary I of England), French use of the term might have been intended as a deliberate snub to the Spanish.[citation needed]However, and just as likely, the term might have simply had a higherfrequency of use at that time in Western Europe, in light of theReconquista. And therefore, the French would have[citation needed] merely thought it to be a politically appropriate and authoritative word for their own reconquest of land.
[edit] See also[edit] Notes- ^ Don O'Reilly. "Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans". TheHistoryNet.com.
- ^ As noted in, e.g., Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and the American Approach to Foreign Policy,Bucknell University Press, 1989; p. 87 ("the English Channel gave thenation a sense of geographical remoteness" while its "navy fostered asense of physical unassailability" that lasted until the early 20thcentury).
- ^ The Salic Law was not invoked until the 1380s - see Robin Neillands, The Hundred Years' War, Routledge.
- ^ French as a mother-tongue in Medieval England
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